Video Content Analysis Essays

Video Content Analysis Essays Video Content Analysis Essay Video Content Analysis Essay Video Content Analysis, what is it and why would I want it? White Paper by Nick Hewitson November 2005. What is Video Content Analysis? There are a number of terms used in different industries and markets to describe Video Content Analysis: Analytics Behavior Recognition Content Analysis Concept Coding Intelligent Video Object Tracking Smart CCTV They all however describe the real time use of computer vision in a security environment to monitor the CCTV camera feeds and assist the guard in his or her decision making process. The UK is the country with the most CCTV cameras deployed, with over 4 million in se. Its claimed that if you walk through London you will be watched over 300 times, however this is clearly a misconception. While it is probably true that you will be in the field of view of a CCTV camera over 300 times during your walk through London it is certainly not true that you are observed that many times for number of reasons. Firstly CCTV control rooms have fewer monitors than there are cameras, in many cases a number of cameras are sequentially displayed on a single monitor. If for example five cameras are fed into a single monitor which then you obviously have nly a 20% chance of being viewed while in any individual cameras field of vi ew. Secondly the staff in the control room are often expected to deal with other issues as well as monitoring the CCTV. They will be responsible for issuing keys, badges and permits to both staff and visitors; they are also responsible for monitoring the access control and fire alarm systems, controlling radio communications with both their own foot patrols and possibly the local Police. In addition they will need to be away from their desks for breaks to visit the restrooms etc. During this time they are ot monitoring the CCTV images. Finally the design of CCTV control rooms expects the guard to watch a large number of monitors. According to ASS International, a human can effectively watch 9-12 cameras for only 15 minutes. Security guard shifts are often 12 hours long so 1 1 hours and 45 minutes are ineffective monitoring. CCTV Today in November 2005 estimated that the probability of an event being recognised and acted upon if it was clearly in the view of a CCTV camera was less than 1 in 1000. CCTV has historically been a forensic tool not a real time crime prevention system. The principal of Video Content analysis is to use computers to monitor all of the cameras all of the time and when something unusual happens to alert the security guard to it. For example in a retail shopping centre a person running is unusual. The system can detect that a persons running but is unable to differentiate between a benign event, a teenage girl running over to greet her boyfriend, or a criminal event where someone is running out of a shop with an armload of Jeans. However if the running event is drawn to the security guards attention he is able to make that ubjective decision easily and respond appropriately. Why would I want to use Intelligent Video? The following scenario is taken from a real test of a behavioural recognition system monitoring access to parked aircraft in the USA. It shows what the advantages of computer vision over human monitoring can be. There are 8 cameras monitoring a road that passes through a tunnel, above which is an area where commercial aircraft are parked. The system was tasked with looking for cars that stopped under the bridge and people climbing up the slope towards the aircraft. Over 1 month the system reported almost 300 events where vehicles were seen stopping. 298 of these were originally classified as false alarms caused by normal traffic flow problems. One event was due to a fender bender accident and one to a breakdown. There were no attempts to approach the parked aircraft. At first evaluation, it would seem that the value of the system was negligible, all it had produced were 298 false alarms out of 300 events. Previously the cameras were monitored by a guard on conventional CCTV monitors and no events at all had been reported in the month before. It was found that the 300 events would take the guard on average less than 30 seconds each to determine the risk. So instead of employing staff 24 / 7 for 30 days to monitor the tunnel only two and a half hours man hours were required over the whole 30 day period. In addition, in the previous month the guard reported no events, given that each of the 300 events reported by the system actually took place in the test month. It is probable that a similar number actually took place previously when the guard was supposed to be watching and he didnt notice them. It is therefore highly likely that if someone had stopped a car briefly to allow a passenger to get out and approach the aircraft, the event would have been missed, while the Intelligent Video system would have caught it. The Smart CCTV system had therefore raised the effectiveness of the monitoring from zero to 100% while reducing the operating costs from 720 man hours to 2. 5 man hours of labour. When the security manager looked at the cost effectiveness on this basis, he had no hesitation in purchasing a system. Key issues to determine before looking at Video Content Analysis. What are your operational requirements? As seen above, if it is to have a minimum number of false alarms then the human operator will be more effective, he failed to report any of the traffic events under the bridge, in fact he didnt report anything at all, so his false alarm rate was zero. What percentage of the cameras is best monitored by computer vision, and what percentage is better monitored by a human operator? In general, today computers do better on the cameras where nothing much happens (and therefore guards get bored) and people do better in busy scenarios where occlusion between people akes it hard for the software. A good example is an embassy that has a back alley where no one ever goes. This is covered by a CCTV camera and this was the only camera out of about 50 that was implemented at the beginning. The embassy realised that no one paid attention to this camera because nothing ever happened but if someone was in the alley they really needed to know about it fast. In the majority of applications today, only a percentage of the total number of the cameras are monitored by video content analysis, some are only recorded and some are monitored full time by the security staff. You need to determine what is the specific risk and the most appropriate method of monitoring for each point. Do the risks and scenarios change during the course of 24 hours? Can you build upgradeability into your plans? In many cases the number of cameras monitored by the software increases as experience of the benefits is gained. Video Content analysis is a tool that allows you to improve your operational effectiveness. It is not the all seeing Big Brother monitoring all activity. It helps you spot the needle in the haystack; CCTV provides huge amounts of mostly irrelevant data. Video Content Analysis extracts information from that data. It reduces your costs, manual monitoring is inconsistent and expensive. It reduces your risk by moving away from the limited human attention span of less than twenty minutes, and screening all of the video streams in parallel. It allows you to move from a forensic mindset of finding out what happened after the event has taken place towards real time analysis and decision making. You do still need to employ professional security staff to make the decisions on the information presented to them in a sensible manner. -End-

What to Know About Visual Basic

What to Know About Visual Basic In 2008 Microsoft stopped support for VB and declared it a Legacy software. Feel free to read this article written before that time. It provides good background for the current .NET software still in use today. Its a computer programming system developed and owned by Microsoft. Visual Basic was originally created to make it easier to write programs for the Windows computer operating system. The basis of Visual Basic is an earlier programming language called BASIC that was invented by Dartmouth College professors John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz. Visual Basic is often referred to using just the initials, VB. Visual Basic is easily the most widely used computer programming system in the history of software. Is Visual Basic Just a Programming Language? Its more. Visual Basic was one of the first systems that made it practical to write programs for the Windows operating system. This was possible because VB included software tools to automatically create the detailed programming required by Windows. These software tools not only create Windows programs, but they also take full advantage of the graphical way that Windows works by letting programmers draw their systems with a mouse on the computer. This is why its called Visual Basic. Visual Basic also provides a unique and complete software architecture. Architecture is the way computer programs, such as Windows and VB programs, work together. One of the major reasons why Visual Basic has been so successful is that it includes everything that is necessary to write programs for Windows. Is there more than one version of Visual Basic? Yes. Since 1991 when it was first introduced by Microsoft, there have been nine versions of Visual Basic up to VB.NET 2005, the current version. The first six versions were all called Visual Basic. In 2002, Microsoft introduced Visual Basic .NET 1.0, a completely redesigned and rewritten version that was a key part of a much larger computer architecture. The first six versions were all backward compatible. That means that later versions of VB could handle programs written with an earlier version. Because the .NET architecture was such a radical change, earlier versions of Visual Basic have to be rewritten before they can be used with .NET. Many programmers still prefer Visual Basic 6.0 and a few use even earlier versions. Will Microsoft stop supporting Visual Basic 6 and earlier versions? This depends on what you mean by support but many programmers would say they already have. The next version of the Windows operating system, Windows Vista, will still run Visual Basic 6 programs and future versions of Windows might run them too. On the other hand, Microsoft now charges big fees for any help for VB 6 software problems and soon they wont provide it at all. Microsoft doesnt sell VB 6 anymore so its difficult to find. Its clear that Microsoft is doing everything they can to discourage the continued use of Visual Basic 6 and encourage the adoption of Visual Basic .NET. Many programmers believe that Microsoft was wrong to abandon Visual Basic 6 because their customers have put so much investment into it over more than ten years. As a result, Microsoft has earned a lot of ill will from some VB 6 programmers and some have moved to other languages rather than move to VB.NET. This might be a mistake. Is Visual Basic .NET really an improvement? Absolutely yes! All of .NET is truly revolutionary and gives programmers a much more capable, efficient and flexible way to write computer software. Visual Basic .NET is a key part of this revolution. At the same time, Visual Basic .NET is clearly more difficult to learn and use. The vastly improved capability does come at a fairly high cost of technical complexity. Microsoft helps to make up for this increased technical difficulty by providing even more software tools in .NET to help programmers. Most programmers agree that VB.NET is such a huge leap forward that its worth it. Isnt Visual Basic only for lower skilled programmers and simple systems? This was something that programmers using programming languages like C, C, and Java used to say before Visual Basic .NET. Back then, there was some truth to the charge, although on the other side of the argument was the fact that excellent programs could be written faster and cheaper with Visual Basic than with any of those languages. VB.NET is the equal of any programming technology anywhere. In fact, the resulting program using the .NET version of the C programming language, called C#.NET, is virtually identical with the same program written in VB.NET. The only real difference today is programmer preference. Is Visual Basic object-oriented? VB.NET certainly is. One of the big changes introduced by .NET was complete object-oriented architecture. Visual Basic 6 was mostly object-oriented but lacked a few features such as inheritance. The subject of object-oriented software is a big topic by itself and is beyond the scope of this article. What is the Visual Basic runtime and do we still need it? One of the big innovations introduced by Visual Basic was a way to split a program into two parts. One part is written by the programmer and does everything that makes that program unique, such as adding two specific values. The other part does all of the processing that any program might need such as the programming to add any values. The second part is called the runtime in Visual Basic 6 and earlier and is part of the Visual Basic system. The runtime is actually a specific program and each version of Visual Basic has a corresponding version of the runtime. In VB 6, the runtime is called MSVBVM60. (Several other files are also normally needed for a complete VB 6 runtime environment.) In .NET, the same concept is still used in a very general way, but its not called a runtime anymore (its part of the .NET Framework) and it does a lot more. What is the Visual Basic .NET Framework? Like the old Visual Basic runtimes, the Microsoft .NET Framework is combined with specific .NET programs written in Visual Basic .NET or any other .NET language to provide a complete system. The Framework is much more than a runtime, however. The .NET Framework is the basis of the entire .NET software architecture. One major part is a huge library of programming code called the Framework Class Library (FCL). The .NET Framework is separate from VB.NET and can be downloaded free of charge from Microsoft. The Framework is an included part of Windows Server 2003 and Windows Vista. What is Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) and how does it fit in? VBA is a version of Visual Basic 6.0 that is used as an internal programming language in many other systems such as Microsoft Office programs like Word and Excel. (Earlier versions of Visual Basic were used with earlier versions of Office.) Many other companies in addition to Microsoft have used VBA to add programming ability to their own systems. VBA makes it possible for another system, like Excel, to run a program internally and provide what is essentially a custom version of Excel for a particular purpose. For example, a program could be written in VBA that will make Excel create an accounting balance sheet using a series of accounting entries in a spreadsheet at the click of a button. VBA is the only version of VB 6 that is still sold and supported by Microsoft and only as an internal component of Office programs. Microsoft is developing a completely .NET capability (called VSTO, Visual Studio Tools for Office) but VBA continues to be used. How much does Visual Basic cost? Although Visual Basic 6 could be purchased by itself, Visual Basic .NET is only sold as part of what Microsoft calls Visual Studio .NET. Visual Studio .NET also includes the other Microsoft supported .NET languages, C#.NET, J#.NET and C.NET. Visual Studio comes in a variety of versions with different capabilities that go well beyond just the ability to write programs. In October 2006, Microsofts posted list prices for Visual Studio .NET ranged from $800 to $2,800 although various discounts are often available. Fortunately, Microsoft also provides a completely free version of Visual Basic called Visual Basic .NET 2005 Express Edition (VBE). This version of VB.NET is separate from the other languages and is also completely compatible with the more expensive versions. This version of VB.NET is very capable and doesnt feel at all like free software. Although some features of the more expensive versions arent included, most programmers wont notice anything missing. The system can be used for production quality programming and isnt crippled in any way like some free software. You can read more about VBE and download a copy at Microsofts web site.

Defining toughness in college hoops Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Defining toughness in college hoops - Essay Example It is evident from the study that Jay Bilas, the author of the article â€Å"Defining toughness in college hoops† clarified that his original perception of toughness was â€Å"physical and based on how much punishment I could dish out and how much I could take†. Therefore, by using explicit description of what toughness was not necessarily what it obviously means, the author started establishing his arguments using narration, description, and comparison. For example, the guidelines expounded on setting a good screen, the author defined what it takes for basketball players to manifest the necessary actions in terms of â€Å"improving the chances for a teammate to get open†¦and greatly improving your chances of getting open. A good screen can force the defense to make a mistake†. In contrast, setting a bad screen was not effectively described. The only explanation provided was that â€Å"a lazy or bad screen is a waste of everyone's time and energy†. Th e definition is lacking and insufficient to clearly differentiate disparity with an effective strategy. In addition, as readers get to evaluate the guidelines, it was apparent that the author did not provide an effective structure or logical format of presentation. In this regard, there is failure to use logical reasoning. The guidelines, though effective in the entirety, could have been presented in a more logical structure that categorizes the topics in sub-headings. For example, the author explained â€Å"set a good screen† and another topic as â€Å"don’t get screened†. These topics could actually be lumped together under ‘techniques for effective screening’. ... Another example is the author’s discussion on: â€Å"jump to the ball† (Bilas 2) and â€Å"play the ball, see your man† (Bilas 3); which could again be discussed in one sub-heading that could be entitled ‘tough ways of handling the ball’. The guidelines were apparently written in no particular order and could have been presented depending on the ideas that came to the author’s mind. It could be rationalized though that since the author knew that the article was specifically written with basketball enthusiasts, particularly players, as the audience of his discourse, the style, format or structure would not be examined and critiqued to diminish the veracity of the contents. However, considering that the author was duly established as a renowned basketball analyst, his credibility in providing the information was rightfully validated. Further, as indicated from the discourse, his personal experiences playing â€Å"in the ACC, for USA Basketball, in NBA training camps, and as a professional basketball player in Europe† (Bilas 1) has proven that he was acquired vast authority in to relay competency in the topic. The ability to conform to ethos due to his reputable background made his contentions and arguments valid. Finally, the article’s ability to more the audience through eliciting emotional appeal could be viewed as effective. The main support to validate the author’s success was his narrative discourse attesting that when he initially wrote a short blog on the topic, the response was â€Å"overwhelming. Dozens of college basketball coaches called to tell me that they had put the article up in the locker room, put it in each player's locker, or had gone over it in detail with

Managing Information Technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 8

Managing Information Technology - Essay Example Certainly, chargebacks are not for all time the outcome of somewhat IS service provider did or did not perform sometimes mistakes are made by issuer of card, buyers and credit card holders (Brown, DeHayes, Hoffer, Martin, & Perkins, 2009), (Visa., 2011) and (Conde, 2011). Moreover, a chargeback takes place after a consumer contacts their credit-card provider to challenge a charge that emerges on their credit card testimonial. Additionally, the chargebacks can take place due to several causes for instance an illegal agent has performed an acquisition the consumer’s credit card. In addition, there could be some concerns of chargeback wherein a buyer is not pleased with the strength of the IS services. There is another aspect in which consumer has been indicted numerous times intended for the similar order of purchase. In other scenarios a chargeback can take place when the purchaser is displeased by an acquirement and has not been capable to resolve the issue with the trader. Ot her cases may involve when the purchaser has not obtained the purchased products as they were promised by the IS service provider (Brown, DeHayes, Hoffer, Martin, & Perkins, 2009) and (Google, 2011).

Purpose And Definition Of OEE Engineering Essay

Purpose And Definition Of OEE Engineering Essay 2.1 Introduction These days, in this demanding world, the total elimination of waste is for the survival of the organization. The waste caused due to the failure or shutdown of facilities that has been built with enormous investment, and also waste such as defective products ought to be completely eliminated. In a manufacturing sector, companys facilities have to be functioning efficiently in order to gain desirable productivity, inventory cost, delivery as well as quality. In this context, the motive of OEE analysis and measurement is to reduce the equipment losses to zero and has been recognized as a necessity for many organizations. According to Bamber et al. (1999) [5], the role of teamwork, small group activities and the participation of all employees is crucial to accomplish equipment improvement aims. Hence, OEE is use as metrics to determine the Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) activities. On the other hand, it can also be said that OEE shows a consistency approach to measure the effectiven ess of TPM as well as other programs by providing an overall structure for measuring production efficiency. As explained by (Dal et al., 2000) [6], the role of OEE goes far beyong not only monitoring and controlling, but also takes into consideration of process improvement initiatives/programs, provides a systematic method for establishing production targets, prevents the sub-optimization of individual machines or product lines, as well as incorporates practical management tools and techniques. This ensures the attainment of a balanced view of process availability, quality and performance. Another statement made by Lesshammar and Patrik (1999) [7], in their case studies, have presented how OEE is being used in industry and as well have reported that this metric forms a useful part of an overall system of measurement. In other words, it provides a useful method to measure the effectiveness of manufacturing operations from a single piece of equipment to the whole manufacturing plant of several manufacturing plants in a group. In doing so, OEE not only provides a complete scenario of where productive manufacturing time and money is being lost, but at the same time uncovers the true , hidden capability of the industry. Thus, it becomes the key manufacturing decision support tool for constant improvement programmes [8]. Apart from that, OEE is an established method of measuring followed by optimizing the efficiency of a machines performance or that of a whole industry plant. The effectiveness of a plants production highly depends on the effectiveness with which it makes use of equipment, materials, man and methods as explained by Suzuki (1999) [9]. Besides, OEE can have a significant impact on the productivity of a manufacturing unit. Therefore, through OEE manufacturers may systematically direct their business towards attainment of continuous improvement operating margins, optimized competitive position and maximized utilization of capital. Some of the more prominent firms have benefited from OEE as a measurement gauge for implementing improvement activities that increases company profits and costs. . 2.2 History of OEE OEE is an essential metric and basic methodology for manufacturers practicing a Lean manufacturing strategy that is zero waste in their value streams. This metric element follows the well-founded principle: If you cant measure it, you cant manage it [10]. Some advocates are fond of the view If youre not taking score, youre only practicing [10]. In 1972, the Japanese Plant Maintenance Institute (JPMI) developed a theory called Total Productive Maintenance [11]. The preliminary aim of TPM was to eradicate the six big losses and subsequently the eight wastes. It was first implemented and developed in Toyotas automotive plants, soon after evolving into world renowned Toyota Production System. An organizational culture was formed by Toyota that focused on the systematic identification and elimination of all waste from their production process where the technical / human contributions to production are maximized. Reengineering and organizational change is used to maximize yield, minimize cost and time-compress the supply chain by fully excluding non-value added activities and not right first time events. The OEE gauge came forward from the Japanese production focused, equipment management framework of TPM [10]. OEE is the key measure of the tangible benefits accessible from TPM by Seiichi Nakajima, the founder of Total Productive Maintenance who initially used OEE to depict a fundamental measure for tracking production performance. He (Seiichi Nakajima) challenged the complacent view of effectiveness by focusing not merely on keeping equipment running smoothly, but on creating a sense of joint responsibility between maintenance workers and operators to optimize the Overall Equipment Performance. OEE symbolized in the first of the original pillars of TPM. Guided all TPM activities and measured the results of these loss focused activities. Therefore, the use of OEE had evolved into the current focused improvement pillar, one of eight TPM pillars. During the mid 1990s, coordinated by SEMATECH the semiconductor wafer fabrication industry has adopted to improve the productivity of the fabrication [11]. Since then, manufacturers in other industries throughout the world have embraced OEE ways to improve their asset utilization. 2.3 The purpose of OEE The OEE metric can be applied at a number of different levels within a manufacturing environment. First, OEE can be used as a benchmark for measuring the initial performance of a manufacturing industry as a whole. Thereby, the initial OEE measure can be compared with future OEE values, hence quantifying the level of enhancement made. Subsequently, an OEE value calculated for one manufacturing line can as well be used to compare line performance across the industry, thus highlighting any poor line performance. If the machines processes work individually, an OEE measure can discover which machine performance is worst, and therefore indicate where to focus TPM resources ( Nakajima 1988) [5]. Dal et al. (2000) [6] declared that by utilizing largely existing performance data, such as preventive maintenance, absenteeism, accidents, material utilization, conformance to schedule, labor recovery, set-up and changeover data, etc., the OEE measure may possibly provide topical information for daily decision making. Due to this, the OEE measurement method within a industry becomes the elementary measure of TPM activities, as well as a basis of improvements for the TPM process. 2.4 Definition of OEE In the era of globalization today, manufacturers are forced to look for creative ways to maximize additional investment due to the continuous pressure of global competition which results in lower margin. In this state, OEE has becoming a hot topic. In its most basic form, OEE offers a straightforward ways to keep track of manufacturing performance as well as to measure the total equipment performance- the degree to which the asset is doing what it is supposed to do. However, the true power of OEE as a dedicated application lies in the ability to use it as a change-enabler, or tool for continuous improvement and lean manufacturing programs [8]. There are various methodologies to gauge manufacturing efficiency. Generally most companies will have a number of measures already in place. Nevertheless, many now disagree that none of these approaches are as comprehensive or far reaching as the OEE achievement, since OEE provides a way to measure the effectiveness of manufacturing operations from single piece of equipment to the manufacturing plant in entirety, or several manufacturing plants in a group. as a result, OEE can be well thought-out as a central KPI (key performance indicator). It drives an organization to examine all aspects of asset performance in order to ensure gaining the maximum benefits from a piece of equipment that is already bought and paid for [12]. Thus, it is obvious that OEE acts as an approach for monitoring and managing the lifecycle of manufacturing assets. On the other hand, OEE can be expressed as a commonly accepted set of metrics that bring clear focus to the key success drivers for manufacturing enterprises [13]. In other words, it measures both efficiency (doing things right) and effectiveness (doing the right things) with the equipments. These measurement comprises of three fundamental elements where each one is expressed as a percentage and accounting for a different kind of waste in the manufacturing process. Thus, it is understood that OEE is a function of the three factors. The three factors mentioned below are briefed as: Availability or uptime (downtime: planned and unplanned, tool change, tool service, job change etc.) A measure of the time the plant was in fact available for production compared to the manufacturing requirements. Any losses in this area would attribute to major breakdowns or extended set up time [14]. Performance efficiency (actual vs. design capacity) The rate that concrete units are produced compared to the designed output. Losses in this area would attribute to slow speed running, minor stoppages or adjustments [14]. Rate of quality output (Defects and rework) A measure of good quality, saleable product, minus any waste. Losses in this element would attribute to damage rejects or products needing rework [14]. Measuring OEE can be done simply by capturing the five basic pieces of information as stated below: Planned Production Time the planned amount of time in which production is planned for a specific line. Down Time specify as the amount of time the process is not running during the planned production time (interrupts to production). Ideal Cycle Time represent as the theoretical minimum of time needed to produce a single piece of product. Total Pieces denote as the total number of pieces produced during the planned production time. Good Pieces signify as the total number of pieces produced that meet quality standards. Figure 2.1 The Overall Equipment Effectiveness flow chart 2.5 Objectives of OEE Overall Equipment Effectiveness records and data informations are used to categorize a single asset (machine or equipment) and/or single stream process related losses in order to improve total asset reliability and performance. Besides, the information is useful and essential as it helps to identify and categorize major losses or reasons for poor performance. OEE offers the basis for setting enhancement priorities as well as for the root of measurement and analysis. In addition, the percentage determined is used to track and trend for improvement, or decline, in equipment effectiveness over a period of time. Hidden or untapped capacity in a manufacturing process can be pointed out through these percentages and lead to balance flow. On top of that, OEE can be used to develop and enhance collaboration between asset operations, maintenance, purchasing, and equipment engineering to jointly identify and reduce (or eliminate) the 2 major causes of poop performance since maintenance alone cannot improve OEE. 2.6 The use of OEE The root why companies uses OEE is to avoid making inappropriate purchases, and help them focus on improving the performance of machinery and also plant equipment they already own. Companies should also start with the area that will provide the greatest return on asset because OEE is able to find the greatest areas of improvement. These OEE formula with the major factors involves will show how improvements in quality, changeovers, machine reliability improvements, working through breaks and more. In business world today, when many manufacturers strive towards world class productivity in their facility, this simple method will perform an excellent benchmarking tool [15]. Besides, the simple derived OEE percentage makes a great motivational system as it is easy to understand and this single number is displayed where all facility personnel can view it. By giving employees such as operators and workers an easy way to see how they are doing in overall equipment utilization, production speed, and quality, in return they will strive for a higher number instead. 2.7 Defining Six Big Losses One of the major goals of TPM and OEE programs is to reduce and/or eliminate what are named as the Six Big Losses, the most common causes of efficiency loss in manufacturing sectors. This was put forwarded by Nakajima in 1989 [16]. There are basically 3 categories of OEE loss which include: Down Time Loss, Speed Loss and Quality Loss. Each of these types has been divided into two sub-losses. They are known or called the Six Big Losses. Basically, OEE is generally measured in terms of these six losses as showed below. They are categorized as stated below: Breakdown Losses Setup and Adjustments Losses Small Stops Losses (Idling and Minor Stop Losses) Reduced Speed Losses Startup Rejects (reduced yield losses) Production Rejects (quality defects and re-work) Categorizing these data makes addressing the Six Big Losses much easier, and a key goal should be fast and efficient data collection, with data put to used throughout the day in the real time. 2.2 Addressing the Six Big Losses Measurement is essential to establish appropriate metrics. It is important necessity of continuous improvement processes. As stated by Nakajima (1988), an efficient way of analyzing the efficiency of a single machine or an integrated manufacturing process is through OEE measurement [17]. It is a function of availability, performance rate, and quality rate. In fact, the three dimensions are measures in terms of equipment losses. Following this, Nakajima (1988) defined these losses into six major categories as follows [17]: 2.7.1.1 Availability Losses Based on the mechanism principle, a machine most likely is available 24/7/365. However, this comes from an ideal perspective, from which one can measure true machine availability. There are few genuine factors that affect on availability, some of which are planned, and some unplanned. For planned downtime, it takes into account of holidays, scheduled maintenance and vacation. While for unplanned downtime, it includes equipment failures and setup and adjustments. It is possible to factor in the planned downtime; however it is the losses due to unplanned downtime that can negatively affects machine availability. Breakdowns Breakdown Losses are classified as by far the biggest of the Six Big Losses. These losses are significant due to the fact of its sudden, dramatic failure in which the equipment stops completely [18]. In the view of the fact that there is no production therefore this unexpected breakdown are undoubtedly elements of losses. The breakdown can cause all equipment functions to be terminated even though the source lies in a single specific function. Nevertheless, deterioration related to problem and losses are also regard as break down losses. It is important to improve OEE by eliminating unplanned downtime. But if the process is down, other OEE factors cannot be dealt with. Therefore, it is not merely important to know how much downtime your process is experiencing (and when) at the same time to be able to attribute the lost time to the specific reason or cause for the loss [19]. Setup and Adjustments Whenever the production of one product stops and the equipment is adjusted to meet the requirements of another product, this is where setup and adjustment take place. The loss of time due to this delay is known as setup and adjustments Basically, setup and adjustments period of time is normally measured as the time between the last good parts produced before setup to the first consistent good parts produced after setup. In order to constantly produce parts that meet the quality standards, it should generally include substantial adjustment and/or warm-up time. Various innovative ways have been used by companies to reduce setup time. These comprises assembling changeover carts with all tools and supplies necessary for the changeover in one place, pinned or marked settings so that coarse adjustments are no longer necessary, and use of prefabricated setup measures [20]. 2.7.1.2 Performance Losses Machine performance referred to as the net production time during which products are produced. The more the machine produces, the greater the OEE metric. However, speed losses and small stops will inhibit the overall performance of machine. If such losses is not recognized and addressed, the machine performance cannot be fully optimized. Reduced Speed Reduced Speed can be classified as one of the most difficult of the Six Big Losses to monitor and record. This is due to the reason that there is a significant difference between the theoretical maximum speed and what people think the maximum speed is. In most cases, in order to prevent other losses such as quality rejects and breakdowns, the production speed needs to be optimized. Losses due to reduce speed are therefore, often ignored or underestimated [21]. It happens when the equipment runs slower than its optimal or maximum speed. Apart from that, reduced speed is the difference between designed speed and the actual operating speed [21]. There are various reasons where equipment may be running at less than its designed speed, for instance non-standard or difficult raw materials, history or past problems, mechanical problems, or fear of overloading the equipment. This loss of speed is actually converted into time during the OEE calculation. Small Stops We can also assume small stops as one of the most difficult of the Six Big Losses to monitor and record. Whenever a machine shows short interruptions and does not have a constant speed, this will not result in a smooth flow of production. Minor stoppages and the subsequent loss of speed can be the cause from products blocking sensors or products getting stuck in the conveyor belts. The machines effectiveness will be diminished drastically if these hitches occur frequently [21]. The occurrence of these losses happens whenever equipment stops for a short time as the result of a temporary problem. As an example, a work-piece is jammed in a chuck or when a sensor activates and shut down the machines, this will definitely result in a minor stoppage. As soon as someone removes the jammed work-piece or resets the sensor instantly, it operates normally again. These losses also include idling losses that occur when equipment continues to run without producing. Thus, since idling and minor stoppages interrupt jobs, therefore they can also be categorized as breakdowns. Despite that, the two are fundamentally different in that a minor stoppage and the duration are usually less than 10 minutes. 2.7.1.3 Quality Losses A scrap is when the final product is not saleable, and the entire process has been wasted on product that will never make it to the customer. Thus, it is very essential to take into account the quality of the product while evaluating OEE. Availability and speed often has been the main focus, and quality is left behind. The key to keep in mind is that without a good product, the rest of the operation is a white elephant. Generally, quality losses are generated during startup while the machine is ramping up, during adjustment, or during normal production, as rejected/unwanted product due to process instabilities. Startup Rejects Products that do not meet the quality standards are called scraps, even if they can be sold as sub-spec. A specific type of quality loss is the startup losses where these losses occur due to when: Starting up of the machine: the production is not stable as soon as the machine starts and the first products do not meet the quality standards. The process of the machine at the end of a production run is no longer stable and the products no longer to be able to meet the specifications require. Quantities of products are no longer counted as part of the production order and consequently are considered as loss. These are usually hidden losses, which are often considered to be unavoidable. The scale of these losses can be surprisingly large [21]. Certain adjustments and warm-up time is required for several equipments to obtain optimum output. Losses that happen in the early stages of production during machine setup to stabilization of product quality are called the startup losses. The losses differ with degree of stability of processing condition, operators technical skill, maintenance level on equipment, and many more. Production rejects A product that does not meet the quality specifications/standards for the first time, but can be reprocessed into good products is known as rework products. Reworking products is not a disadvantage as the product can be sold to fit other demand needs. However, the product was not right first time and is therefore a quality loss just like scrap [21]. Production rejects are classified as quality losses that are not caused by startup. These losses arise only when products produced are not conforming to the specifications. Parts that require rework of any kind should be considered reject and this happens during steady state production. Example of the Downtime loss, Speed loss, and Quality loss is depicted in the following page. The Six Big Losses with three categories are shown in figure below. The following table shows how this Six Big Losses are categorized with examples given. Figure 2.3: Classification of Six Big Losses. The table below lists the Six Big Losses, and show how they are relate to the OEE Loss categories. A typical major loss, the categories of OEE as well as examples of events is shown as follow: OEE Loss Category   Six Big Loss Category   Event Examples   Down Time Loss   Breakdowns   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Tooling Failures à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Unplanned Maintenance à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ General Breakdowns à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Equipment Failure   Setup and Adjustments à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Ã‚  Setup/Changeover à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Material Shortages à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Operator Shortages à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Major Adjustments à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Warm-Up Time Speed Loss   Idling and Minor stops   à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Obstructed Product Flow à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Component Jams à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Misfeeds à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sensor Blocked à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Delivery Blocked à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Cleaning/Checking   Reduced Speed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rough Running à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Under Nameplate Capacity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Under Design Capacity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Equipment Wear à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Operator Inefficiency Quality Loss   Start-up Losses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Scrap à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rework à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ In-Process Damage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ In-Process Expiration à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Incorrect Assembly   Defect Losses à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Scrap à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Rework à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ In-Process Damage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ In-Process Expiration à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Incorrect Assembly Table 2.1 : The Six Big Losses in OEE 2.8 OEE factors As explained in previous subsequent chapter, the OEE calculation is based on the three OEE factors. This comprises of Availability, Quality and Performance. They are as well referring as Effectiveness Factors. Here is how each of these factors is calculated. Availability The Availability part of OEE represents the percentage of scheduled time that the equipment is available to function [18]. This Availability element is a measurement of the uptime that is designed to exclude the effects of performance, quality, and scheduled downtime events. Since Availability takes into account of Downtime loss, the formula is calculated as: 20 Availability = Operation time Planned Production time Where, Operation time = Planned production time Unscheduled Downtime Production time = Planned production time Scheduled Downtime Downtime losses zero indicates the availability is 100%, where the gross operating time equals the available time for production. i.e. Operation time equals Planned Production time. Therefore, it can be said that 100% Availability means the process has been running without any recorded stops. Performance Performance can be denoted as the ratio between Net Operating Time and Operating Time. Since Performance takes into account of speed loss, the formula is calculated as: 22 Performance = Net Operating Time Operating Time The Performance portion of OEE corresponds to the speed at which the machine runs as a percentage of its designed speed. This Performance element is a measurement of speed that is designed to exclude the effects of availability and quality [18]. Performance does not penalize for rejects, which imply even if the work is rejected or rework, it will still be included in the planned and actual hours accordingly. Since Performance takes into account Speed Loss, the formula is calculated as: Performance = Ideal Cycle Time Operating Time / Total Pieces 23 Where, Ideal Cycle Time = the minimum cycle time that the process can be expected to achieve in optimal circumstances. It is at times called, Theoretical Cycle Time, Nameplate Capacity or Design Cycle Time. Since Run Rate is the reciprocal of Cycle Time, Performance can also be calculated as: Performance = Total Pieces / Operating Time Ideal Run Rate 24 Performance is limited at 100%, to make sure that if an error is made in specifying the Ideal Cycle Time of Ideal Run Rate, the effect on OEE will be limited. Therefore, it can be said that 100% Performance means the process has been consistently running at its theoretical maximum speed. Quality Rate The Quality portion of the OEE signifies the good units produced as a percentage of the total units produced [18]. The Quality metric is a measurement of process yield that is designed to exclude the effects of availability and performance. Quality is the ratio of Fully Productive Time to Net Operating Time. Quality = Fully Productive Time / Net Operating Time 25 Quality = Good Pieces / Total Pieces Since Quality takes into account of Quality Loss, the formula is calculated as: 26 (Total no of units of processed products- No of units of no good products)/(total no of units of processed products). Thus, it can be said that 100% Quality means there is no rework or reject pieces. Therefore, since OEE takes into account all three OEE factors, the formula is calculated as: 27 OEE = Availability x Performance x Quality Therefore OEE is the product of its effectiveness factors; Availability, Performance and Quality. The study of each of these effectiveness factors will improve the Overall Equipment Effectiveness. Below diagrams shows the three major elements of OEE together with formula calculated . Figure 2.4à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.Shows the formula on how to calculate OEE Figure 2.5à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Shows the OEE Factors Loss OEE Factor Planned Shutdown Not included in OEE calculation Down Time Loss Availability is the ratio of Operating Time to Planned Production Time (Operating Time is Planned Production Time less Down Time Loss). Calculated as the ratio of Operating Time to Planed Production Time. 100% Availability means the process has been running without any recorded stops. Speed Loss Performance is the ratio of Net Operating Time to Operating Time (Net Operating Time is Operating Time less Speed Loss). Calculated as the ratio of Ideal Cycle Time to Actual Cycle Time, or alternately the ratio of Actual Run Rate to Ideal Run Rate. 100% Performance means the process has been consistently running at its theoretical maximum speed. Table 2.1 indicates the 3 main factors of OEE Quality Loss Quality is the ratio of Fully Productive Time to Net Operating Time (Fully Productive Time is Net Operating Time less Quality Loss). Calculated as the ratio of Good Pieces to Total Pieces. 100% Quality means there have been no reject or rework pieces. 2.9 OEE Components of Plant Operating Time 2.9.1 Components of Plant Operating Time In order to establish an accurate measurement, OEE analysis begins with Plant Operating Time. Basically, this Plant Operating Time implies as the amount of time the facility is open and available for equipment process. It can also be refer as the maximum amount of time and is a constant. One day consists of 24 hours of 60 minutes. While, for one week, it consists of 7 days of 24 hours. Whereas, in one year consists of 52 weeks. At times, Plant Operating Time is also referred to as Theoretical Production Time. It consists of different losses like speed and quality loss as well as fully productive time 2.9.1 Plant Production Time Once a category of called Planned Shut Down is subtracted from Plant Operating Time, the remaining available time is called Planned Production Time. The Planned Shut Down shall include any events that should be excluded from efficiency analysis since there was no intension of running production [22]. For example, tea breaks, lunch breaks, scheduled maintenance or periods where there is nothing to produce. Nevertheless, Planned Production Time is also known as Available Production Time. OEE initiates with Planned Production Time and analyze efficiency as well as productivity losses that occur, with the aim of eliminating or reducing these losses. OEE starts with Plant Operating Time and end up with Fully Productive Time, screening the source of productive loss that occur in between. 2.9.1.1 Operating Time From Planned Production Time, the downtime loss is subtracted to gain Operating Time. The downtime losses inclusive of any events that stop planned production for an appreciable length of time (normally several minute-long enough to log as a traceable event) [22]. Examples of these include material shortages, equipment failures, and changeover time. Since it is also includes as type of downtime, the changeover time is included in OEE analysis. Even though it may not be possible to reduce 9 changeover times, however, it can be reduced in most cases. The remaining available time is called Operating Time and also known as Gross Operating Time [22]. 2.9.1.2 Net Operating Time From the Operating Time, the speed loss is deducted to obtain Net Operating Time. The speed losses take account of any factors that cause the process to operate less than the maximum possible speed while running. Examples of these include machine wear, substandard materials, miss-feeds, and operator inefficiency. 2.9.1.3 Fully Productive Time As for Net Operating Time, the Quality Loss is subtracted and the remaining available time is called the Fully Productive Time. These quality losses accounts for produced pieces that do not meet quality standards, together with pieces that require rework. The goal here is to maximize Fully Productive Time w

Into the Wild Essay

In writing â€Å"Into the Wild,† Krakauer’s intention was to uncover the facts (or at least get as close to the facts as possible) surrounding Christopher McCandless’ journey â€Å"into the wild. † Krakauer discusses and presents theories and explanations about McCandless’ reasons for going off into a potentially fatal journey, and also presents investigations into how McCandless came to such a state in his life. Krakauer gives us some idea of the direct cause of McCandless’ death, and his reasons for doing what he did. Krakauer aims to give readers with invaluable insight into the mind of McCandless—how McCandless came about the idea of going to the Alaskan wilderness, what his motivations were, how he planned and managed to survive the grueling trek, and most importantly, â€Å"why? † The author seeks to understand what happened to McCandless in the wild, and to explain why someone so full of promise, who seems to have such an ideal life and much of all that he could ask for, could do what McCandless did. However, Krakauer does not presume to be certain about McCandless reasons, but he presents some very good explanations and allows us to understand McCandless’ mind even more. By revealing many things about the reasons behind McCandless’ death, Krakauer shows us that McCandless was far more than a simple and reckless fool who wasted his life. McCandless, who was an intelligent young man, went off into the Alaskan woods to â€Å"find himself† and to reunite with nature. He was heavily influenced by the literature he had read, to such an extent that he became, most of all, a man in search of himself and of a purpose in life. In order to really â€Å"find† himself, he felt it necessary to cut all ties from society, from his family, and reinvent himself as Alexander Supertramp, thus cutting his ties with his old identity. Whether or not he found what he was looking for in the wild is open to speculation, however Krakauer describes McCandless’s psychological terrain by including anecdotes and quotations from people who were in a similar state of mind as McCandless, as well as drawing parallels with his own life as a mountaineer and adventurer. Each chapter presents different tales from others who have been in the same road as McCandless, people who have also sought the solitude of the wild. Krakauer also interviewed people who have come in contact with McCandless during his journey. By the end of â€Å"Into the Wild,† the readers gains significant understanding of McCandless’ personality. Whether McCandless was brave or foolish, his journey of self-discovery is something that almost everyone can relate with and understand on some level. However, while the book is accessible to anyone who could have some interest in the controversial life and death of Christopher McCandless, it is most geared towards those who have sentiments similar to those that McCandless held regarding society, nature, and how to live. â€Å"Into the Wild† helps us understand McCandless’ character, although by the end of the book, it is still up to the reader to decide if McCandless was â€Å"right† or â€Å"wrong† in having done what he did – whether he was courageoeus or merely foolish.

The Stranger By Albert Camus - 1628 Words

Albert Camus’s novel â€Å"The Stranger† revolves around a young man estranged from society. This man, Monsieur Meursault, lives the majority of his life fulfilling his own physical needs and social obligations, but has little emotional connection to the world around him. Throughout the book Meursault attends his mother’s funeral, begins a serious relationship with his former co-worker Marie, kills a man without motive, goes through trial, and is sentenced for execution. His lack of emotional response to these major life events causes a general mistrust from the people around him. In part one, before he commits murder, the impression he makes on others does not affect him much, but this is not true for the second half of the book. Though he was†¦show more content†¦When one of his mother’s closest friends stops sobbing, Meursault is glad â€Å"finally shut up† instead of having any sympathy for a mourning woman. 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